Sobieraj & Berry (2011) conceptualized and measured types of political incivility that they termed "outrage". The researchers identified 13 types of recurring speech and behavior that constituted outrage, and they developed a codebook to define each. These are the 13 variables: insulting language, name calling, emotional display, emotional language, verbal fighting/sparring, character assassination, misrepresentative exaggeration, mockery, conflagration, ideologically extremizing language, slippery slope, belittling, and obscene language (p. 26, explanations about the variables – pp. 39-41).

Turnage, A. K. (2008)<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00385.x/full Turnage, A. K. (2008). Email flaming behaviors and organizational conflict. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 43-59.

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