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Conservatives and Liberals

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Overview of the theory of conservatives and liberals


Overview of the theory of conservatives and liberals


Contents

Paper

The question

Deliberate democracy aims at involving all the citizens in rational-communication which will help them make decisions according to reliable information that was produced in the intersubjective experience. While in the deliberation process we hope that people will change their minds according corroborated and reliable theories and evidences that stood the test of critical thinking, and will chose together the most suitable solution. Yet we know that large proportion of the population is conservative in mind, and according to research tend to resists change in world view, even in light of new information. This conflict between large scale participation and the resistance to change by substantial portion of the population is a challenge deliberative democracy developers need to address.

I suggest that if we will understand the mechanisms of resistance to change in the neurocognitive, psychological and social levels, we will be able to create better deliberation settings which will advance change of mind. In this paper I will focus on the neurocognitive mechanisms of rigidity of mind, and according to them I will suggest some basic deliberative settings which will promote more flexible thinking by participants of the deliberation process. In a following paper I will suggest how social settings and psychological settings may create more Rome to change of mind.

Conservatism is a social and psychological phenomena that is part of society. In every culture there are large proportion of people who resist changes in society. The proportion of conservatism in society may change according to many factors. Conservatism level may differ among cultures, and in the same culture in different times. Yet even in societies that are thought to be more liberal and in time the liberalism dominates the culture, conservatism, is strong and influential.

Properties of Conservative

From the early 50s, the causes of conservatism was the scope of wide research. Jost et al[1] has done extensive literature review and summed the findings from 88 samples, involving a near of 23,000 participants from 12 countries. They have found that conservatism is correlated to several factors related to cognitive needs, and to existential motivation. They found that conservatism is associate with mental rigidty, increased dogmatism and intolarance to ambiguty, decress in cognitive complexity, decreased openness to new experience, uncertainty avoidance, personal need for structure and order and a need for closure. In the existential needs, low self esteem may promote resistance to change. Fear anger and anxiety, fear of death, hard economic periods and the instability ofthe economic system were all found to promote conservatism.

Suggested causes of the properties

(explain what these correlations are caused by fear and managing uncertainty) Jost et al speculated that the properties of conservatives are the product of two basic needs. The first is the need to mange fears and to handle threats, and the second is to achieve certainty.(explain how this is corrolated). For instance dogmatism and a need to closure, will help a person that needs certainty, to reduce the complexity of options and information and achieve decisions more easily. It may not be the best option or the most subtle decision, but it will ease up decision making.

A closed mind is also useful in cases of threats. During the evolution most of the threats needed fast reactions that depend on quick decision making. If a gazelle will not react properly to a threat in splits of a second, it may become the next meal of a predator. In light of a threat complex thinking is not adaptive and strait and simple thinking is needed. Evolution drove creatures to develop a system that will produce fast reactions to threats. This system is widely spread in the animal world, and is also part of the reaction system of humans. It is called "fight or flight". In the human world some of the threats can evolve slowly or may take much more time to affect, yet probably because the fight or flight reaction is so conserved, people will use it even in light of slow evolving threat. People may react with anger to news in the media about rape or some misdeeds, although there is no immediate threat, and therefor no immediate need to reaction.

So although part of the threats we conceive do not need quick decision making, the reaction that was evolved through evolution still take charge, and people will look for more simple and strait-forward thinking while perceiving a threat. Dogmatism and closed mindedness are just these simple thinking, in a reaction to a threat, and because conservatives perceive the world as more threatening, they will be more dogmatic as a reaction to a perceived menace.

Decreased openness to experience are also the product reaction to threat and reducing uncertainty. When seeking to find working solutions, new experience may may take time and usage of brain process needed to evaluate the different established options that can produce a more certain solution. New experience may be thrilling, but to establish high certainty based on new solution need experiencing the... solution time after time....

Also, when in danger, seeking for new experience is not adaptive. While in danger, we have to decide fast, and try to decide according to our already established knowledge, which actions to take. Therefore, people who perceive the world as more dangerous, will seek certainty, and will try to avoid the ambiguity that came along with new experience.


The causes in the light of brain research

(Fear and need for certainty, fits brain research.... and show how it fits)

Jost et al. hypothesis, fits well to the new understandings of how the brain works.

Conservatives are more afraid (appear in this paper)

FFFF inhibits the ACC[2][3]. In fear the rostral ACC is responding to threat stimulis[4]. and it take resources frome the dorsal ACC, that is responible for cognitive conflict resulotion[5][6][7]. The threat do not influance much in non-clinicla groups[8]. but can be observed in clinical populations[9]. In anxiaty, the main mechanism, is of attention distraction[10].It is because of law rostral ACC acitivity (thus inability to concntrate) and reduced recurtment of laterl PFC (used for high control)[11]. It was found that in highy enxialty (in clinical population) the anxities showed less activation of the rosteral ACC, thus there are less able to disengage from the fear cause, and thus elevate fear levels.

Suggested mechanism for conservatism

Basic Mechanism

explain mechanism:

  • FFFF -{ACCi -> mostly system1;(v)
    • FFFF-> seratonin->solidarity; (Paper 2010 and some others (v))
  • X(need to do work)-{ACCi -> mainly system1; (learn dorsal ACC (?))
  • ACCa -> search for novelity (some reward) (learn Dorsal ACC +gene for novility Dopamin2)

Fear or need for work -> system1

system2

Folllow by examples

Advance Mechanism

complex mechanism: areas of lib/con..... illiberals.....

Follow by examples

OK, we established theortical frame.

Discussion, or What can we do?

If FFFF and Certainty are the cause of con, then by changing them, we can start change the settings, so we can reduce ACC inhibition. When people get familier, they are less stressed--> reduction of fear....food, basic needs satisified...; certainty: I prime them by saing, we do not have to decide now, or it will not influance the future, or we do not have to solve anything.... or truth talk (avoid uncritical type II discusion), give yourself time....

Letriture review

Charectristics of Lib-Con

Liberalism and conservatism (LibCon) is a phrsae taken form the political scene, but it may apply to commerce, fashion and other social attitudes. In commerce, liberals, or early adopters, are people who tend to buy the newst products, while conservatives look for well tested products, who are old-fashiond[12]. Although the phenomena is well knowen, It's cahrectarisitc are buffleing. A well knowen attempt to the phenomena was done by Lakoff[13]. Lakoff put liberals on the carring and empathic moral and the conservatives on the strong moral, which divide the world in to good and evil.

The charectaristics of conservatives[14]

Causes of Lib-Con

Conservatives are more fearful, while liberals are more calm[15]. Conservatives percives thetening faces as more threatning[16].

There is a connection between liberalism and intelegence[17].

self motivation for conservatism

conservatism can be caused by:

  • FFFF
  • Important of actions and time presure, which sustaning information can be too costly[18][19][20][21][22][23]
    • Ambiant noise (White noise)[24]
    • Mental fatigue (Ego deplition)[25]
    • alcohol intoxication[26]
  • Low need for cognition
  • Personal need for structure[27])and there is a scale for cognitive closure NFCS[28]
    • Prefernce for order and sturcture.
    • Emotional discomfort associated with amvbigiuty (it can be domain specific and FFFF related. Tal Yaron)).
    • Impetiante and impolsivity with regard to decision making.
    • Desire for security and predictability.
    • Colsed-mindnessnes.

The Theory of RWA (Right-Wing Authoritarian): Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) is a personality and ideological variable studied in political, social, and personality psychology. Right-wing authoritarians are people who have a high degree of willingness to submit to authorities they perceive as established and legitimate, who adhere to societal conventions and norms, and who are hostile and punitive in their attitudes towards people who don't adhere to them. They value uniformity and are in favour of using group authority, including coercion, to achieve it. [29]. In it start the reserchers[30], proposed that harsh parenting styles brought on by economic hardship led entire generations to repress hostility toward authority figures and to replace it with an exaggerated deference and idealization of authority and tendencies to blame societal scapegoats and punish deviants.Altemeyer charcrized RWA as (p.148)[31]:

  • “a high degree of submission to the authorities who are perceived to be established and legitimate”;
  • “a general aggressiveness, directed against various persons, whichis perceived to be sanctioned by established authorities”; and
  • “a high degree of adherence to the social conventions which are perceived to be endorsed by society” .


Need for closure comply to regin idealogy[32][33]. But also when a need for closure is felt, also left-wing ideologies will become regid[34]. All in all, people with high need for closure will prefer rigid, construct and well defined theories[35].

Regulatory Focus Theory"(High demends, critisicem): When one has aspirations (ideals) and on the other hand responsibilites (oughts), and his parenting role models asked him to acomplish high goals, but was focused on saftey, avoding of negative outcomes combined with punishment, the child will grow up to be with strong need for closure, while holding, high ideas. This will be the base for some of the left-wing illiblerals ideologies[36][37].

Terror Management Theory[38]: fear of death may be a cause for political conservatism[39], and may motivate conservatism[40][41][42].Greenberg at al, suggested that TMT will no lead to conservatism, but just to strengthening of basic values[43].

Just world theory: The just-world hypothesis (or just-world fallacy) is the cognitive bias that all human actions eventually yield morally fair and fitting consequences, so that, ultimately: noble actions are duly rewarded and evil actions are duly punished. In other words, the just-world hypothesis is the tendency to attribute consequences to, or expect consequences as the result of, an unspecified power that restores moral balance; the fallacy is that this implies (often unintentionally) the existence of such a power in terms of some cosmic force of justice, desert, stability, or order in the universe.

The fallacy popularly appears in the English language in various figures of speech, which often imply a negative reprisal of justice, such as: "You got what was coming to you," "What goes around comes around," and "You reap what you sow." This phenomenon of this fallacy has been widely studied by social psychologists since Melvin J. Lerner conducted seminal work on the belief in a just world in the early 1960s[44]. Since that time, research has continued, examining the predictive capacity of the hypothesis in various situations and across cultures, and clarifying and expanding the theoretical understandings of just world beliefs[45].

Group motivation for conservatism

Social Dominance Theory (SDO): According to social dominance theory, human societies strive to minimize group conflict by developing ideological belief systems that justify the hegemony of some groups over others[46][47][48][49][50]. They achive it by legitmizing myths like (a) parental myth, in which the dominent group is the only one capable of mangment of the large group. (b)"reciprocal myth", in which every group should take it's place, and the dominante group shoul lead. (c) Sacred myth, which give dominence to one group over others by the authourity of God[51].

SDO and RWA compose of 50% of the statisitcal varience of prejudice and athnocentrism, which is large part of the affectors (Altemeyer 1998 p. 47). SDO is more dominante and RWA is more submissive[52]. as Jost et al put it "One can therefore infer that the most inexorable right-wingers are those who are motivated simultaneously by fear and aggression"[53].

Main Causes of Conservatism

The causes of conservatism according to Jost et al (2003)
The causes of conservatism according to Tal Yaron (2012)

"Theoretical and empirical considerations lead us to conclude that virtually all of the above motives originate in psychological attempts to manage uncertainty and fear[54]."These, in turn, are inherently related to the two core aspects of conservative thought mentioned earlier—resistance to change and the endorsement of inequality".Thus, epistemic needs affect the style and manner by which individuals seek to overcome uncertainty and the fear of the unknown[55][56][57][58]. Existential motives, too, involve a desire for certainty and security that is associated with resisting rather than fostering change, and is highly corolated for need for certenty[59][60].

Socio-Psycho Research

Evidence for and against the hypotheses that political conservatism is significantly associated with:

  • Cognitive needs
    • mental rigidity and closed-mindedness - The most contributng factor is mental rigidty[61][62][63][64]. Research on cognitive sophistication and integrative complexity provides the soundest basis for evaluating claims linking epistemic motivation to political ideology[65]. Recent work on personal need for structure[66] and the need for cognitive closure[67] helps to complete the picture.
    • increased dogmatism and intolerance of ambiguity - The right wingers are much more mentaly rigid (dogmatice) the left-wing extremists [68], according to the reserch in the field[69][70][71]. Right wingers, Modrate and extrem, are much more intolrate to ambiguty[72].
    • decreased cognitive complexity - Left-wingers have more cognitive complexity the right-wingers. Modrates in both wings, have more complexity then extrimists[73], but these results are not conclusive. Sidanius 1984/8 found that extremists from both sides are more engaged in political information search and conversation. but over-all conservatism is more related to lower cognitive complexity; r=-.2 p<0.0001
    • decreased openness to experience, in nonhuman experience. r=-.32 p<0.001 (Jost et al. 2003). Joe et al., found that cons. like to participate in decision making and humor experiments.
    • uncertainty avoidance: r=.34 p<0.0001 to conservatism (Jost et al. 2003). conservatives prefer simple and realistic paintings (Mathews 1973). Cons do not like to change work habits or use new technology (Fay and Frase 2000). r=-.27 p<0.001
    • personal needs for order and structure: cons like more tidy and representative clothing and are more tidy.(Altemyer 1998).
    • need for cognitive closure
  • Existential motives.
    • lowered self-esteem: lower self-esteem, produce impulsive closure. failure promotes cons behavior. r=-.09 p<0.001
    • fear, anger, and aggression: fear and threat correlate with con r=.18 p<.0001. neuroticism r=.3 p<.0001
    • pessimism, disgust, and contempt: more research is needed (Jost et al. 2003). not enough research was done on parental role and cons.
    • loss prevention: hard cons react better to loss prevention massages (Lavine et al 1999)
    • fear of death. very high correlation.
    • threat arising from social and economic deprivation - high rise of nazi after 1929 economic crises. but Jost fail to observe that there is rise of extremism on both sides. There seems that there was also rise in Communism.
    • threat to the stability ofthe social system: In time of crises there is growing need for strong leadership and conservatism.

Brain Research

Conservatives have lack of empathy.

People with more activation in the dorsal ACC, tend be more suspitable to PTSD[74]. (May be the more fearful need to use their dACC to calculate different options?). Where as people with ADD, which promote liberalism showed reduced activation of what seems to be the dACC[75].The dACC active in conflict monitoring[76], (and it may be that ADD will decide more impulsivly. But if they have stress, they (fear from failure) they will be unable to decide, as I have seen with my trainees Tal Yaron 08:31, 11 September 2012 (IDT)).


Sadness enhances the experience of pain via neural activation in the anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala[77].The Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex Modulates the Efficiency of Amygdala-Dependent Fear Learning[78].

Learning is induced because of surprise. The dACC is concerned more with attention and motor control processes involved in behavioral adjustment. The dopamine RPE system is the process from which a learning is happening[79].

Emotional processing in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex, 2011

Further readings

  • Jonathan Haidt: The moral roots of liberals and conservatives, on TED.
  • Jazvic said (look at Kahnman p. 67)that new experience is danger, and therefore, human an animals will avoid new exprience: mere-exprience effect. (especially if FFFF is working....)
  • Kahnman in thinking slow and fast p.76, said that in time of danger, it is to risky to relay on the mistakes of system 1, and therefore you will use System 2. I am not sure it is true, unless you have time and self control to activate system 2. maybe smart conservative will be more dependent on system 2.

References

  1. ↑ Jost et al. 2003...
  2. ↑ Tracy A. Dennis and Chao-Cheng Chen, Trait anxiety and conflict monitoring following threat: An ERP study, Psychophysiology. 2009 January; 46(1): 122–131.
  3. ↑ Kristin A. Bussa, Tracy A. Dennisb, Rebecca J. Brookera, Lauren M. Sippela, An ERP study of conflict monitoring in 4–8-year old children: Associations with temperament, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, Volume 1, Issue 2, April 2011, Pages 131–140
  4. ↑ S Bishop, J Duncan, M Brett, AD Lawrence, Prefrontal cortical function and anxiety: controlling attention to threat-related stimuli, Nature neuroscience, 2004
  5. ↑ 19
  6. ↑ 31
  7. ↑ g (Easterbrook, 1959; Hanoch & Vitouch, 2004; Leith & Baumeister, 1996;Meinhardt & Pekrun, 2003; Wood, Mathews, & Dalgleish, 2001)
  8. ↑ 13, 29
  9. ↑ 32
  10. ↑ 9, 19, 32
  11. ↑ S Bishop, J Duncan, M Brett, AD Lawrence, Prefrontal cortical function and anxiety: controlling attention to threat-related stimuli, Nature neuroscience, 2004
  12. ↑ Rogers Everett M., 1962,Diffusion of Innovations, Free Press of Glencoe, Macmillan Company
  13. ↑ Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust ,George Lakoff, 1995
  14. ↑ Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition, Jost et al. Psychological Bulletin, 2003, Vol. 129, No. 3, 339–375
  15. ↑ Political Attitudes Vary with Physiological Traits, 2008, Hibbing et al. Science (Hebrew summery)
  16. ↑ JM. Vigil (2008) Facial Expression Processing Varies with Political Affiliation, Nature
  17. ↑ The Secret Lives of Liberals and Conservatives: Personality Profiles, Interaction Styles, and the Things They Leave Behind Dana R. Carney, John T. Jost, Samuel D. Gosling3, Jeff Potter4, Political Psychology, Volume 29, Issue 6, pages 807–840, December 2008
  18. ↑ A Dynamic and Stochastic Theory of Choice, Response Time, and Confidence (review in Hebrew)
  19. ↑ A paper about time and change of attitude for learning
  20. ↑ Author, 1990 , Time Pressure and Stress in Human Judgment and Decision Making
  21. ↑ *Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Simon, L. (1999). Effects of epistemic motivation on conservatism, intolerance, and other system justifying attitudes. In L. Thompson, D. M. Messick, & J. M. Levine (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp.91–116). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  22. ↑ Kruglanski, A. W., & Freund, T. (1983). The freezing and unfreezing of lay inferences: Effects of impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping, and numerical anchoring. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19,448–468.
  23. ↑ Shah, J. Y., Kruglanski, A. W., & Thompson, E. P. (1998). Membership has its (epistemic) rewards: Need for closure effects on in-group bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 383–393.
  24. ↑ Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” Psychological Review, 103, 263–283.
  25. ↑ Webster, D. M., Richter, L., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). On leaping to conclusions when feeling tired: Mental fatigue effects on impressional primacy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 181–195.
  26. ↑ Webster, D. M. (1994). Groups under the influence: Need for closure effects on the use of shared and unique information. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland at College Park.
  27. ↑ Schaller, M., Boyd, C., Yohannes, J., & O’Brien, N. (1995). The prejudiced personality revisited: Personal need for structure and formation of erroneous group stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 544–555.
  28. ↑ Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1049–1062.
  29. ↑ Stenner, Karen (2009). "Three Kinds of “Conservatism". Psychological Inquiry: 142-159
  30. ↑ Adomo, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswilc, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
  31. ↑ Altemeyer, R. A. (1981). Right-wing authoritarianism. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada: University ofManitoba Press.
  32. ↑ Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Simon, L. (1999). Effects of epistemic motivation on conservatism, intolerance, and other system justifying attitudes. In L. Thompson, D. M. Messick, & J. M. Levine (Eds.),Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 91–116). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  33. ↑ Golec, A. (2001, July). Need for cognitive closure and political conservatism: Studies on the nature of the relationship. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology, Cuernavaca, Mexico.
  34. ↑ *Rokeach, M. (1960). The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books. Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, irony, and solidarity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  35. ↑ Kruglanski, A. W. (1989). Lay epistemics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational basis. New York: Plenum.
  36. ↑ Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280–1300.
  37. ↑ Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as amotivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1–45.
  38. ↑ Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: Free Press
  39. ↑ Wilson, 0. D. (l973). The temperamental basis of attitudes. In 0. D. Wilson (Ed.), The psychology of conservatism (pp. 187—196). London: Academic Press
  40. ↑ Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, 5. (1986). The causes and consequences of the need for self-esteem: A terror management theory.In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public self and private self (pp. 189—207). New York: Springer-Verlag.
  41. ↑ Greenberg, 3., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Rosenblatt, A., Veeder, M., Kirkland, S., & Lyon, D. (1990). Evidence for terror management theory: II. The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 308—318.
  42. ↑ Rosenblatt, A., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Lyon,D.(1989). Evidence for terror management theory: I. The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who violate or uphold cultural values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 68 1—690.
  43. ↑ Greenberg, 3., Simon, L., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Chatel, D. (1992). Terror management and tolerance: Does mortality salience always intensify negative reactions to others who threaten one’s worldview? Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 63, 212—220.
  44. ↑ Lerner, M.J. & Montada, L. (1998). An Overview: Advances in Belief in a Just World Theory and Methods, in Leo Montada & M.J. Lerner (Eds.). Responses to Victimizations and Belief in a Just World (1–7). Plenum Press: New York
  45. ↑ Furnham, A. (2003). Belief in a just world: research progress over the past decade. Personality and Individual Differences; 34: 795–817.
  46. ↑ Pratto, F. (1999). The puzzle of continuing group inequality: Piecing together psychological, social, and cultural forces in social dominance theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 191—263.
  47. ↑ Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741-763.
  48. ↑ Sidanius, J. (1993). The psychology of group conflict and the dynamics of oppression: A social dominance perspective. In S. Iyengar & W. J.McGuire (lids.), Explorations in political psychology (pp. 183—219). Durham, NC: Duke University Press
  49. ↑ Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press
  50. ↑ Sidanius, J., Prattu, F., & Bobo, L. (1996). Racism, conservatism, affirmative action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 476—490.
  51. ↑ Sidanius, J. (1993). The psychology of group conflict and the dynamics of oppression: A social dominance perspective. In S. Iyengar & W. J.McGuire (lids.), Explorations in political psychology (pp. 183—219)(look at pp. 207-209).Durham, NC: Duke University Press
  52. ↑ “Altemeyer, R. A. (1998). The other “authoritarian personality.” In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 47—91). New York: Academic Press. in p.75
  53. ↑ John T. Jost, Arie W. Kruglanski, Jack Glaser and Frank J. Sulloway, Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition, Psychological Bulletin 2003, Vol. 129, No. 3, 339—375 (p. 350. left col buttom)
  54. ↑ John T. Jost, Arie W. Kruglanski, Jack Glaser and Frank J. Sulloway, Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition, Psychological Bulletin 2003, Vol. 129, No. 3, 339—375 (p. 351. left col middle)
  55. ↑ Kruglanski, A. W. (1989). Lay episremics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational basis. New York: Plenum.
  56. ↑ Rokeach, M. (1960). The open and closed mind. New York: BasicBooks. Rorty, R. (1989). Contingency, irony, and solidarity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  57. ↑ Sorrentino, R. M., & Runey, C. I. R. (2000). The uncertain mind: Individual differences in facing the unknown. Philadelphia: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis
  58. ↑ Wilson, 0. D. (lid.). (l973). The psychology of conservatism. London: Academic Press
  59. ↑ Dechesne, M., Janssen, J., & van Knippenberg, A. (2000). Derogation and distancing as terror managementstrategies: The moderating role of need for closure and permeability of group boundaries. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 79, 923—932.
  60. ↑ McGregor, I., Zanna, M. P., Holmes, 1. 0., & Spencer, S. J. (2001). Compensatory conviction in the face of personal uncertainty: Going to extremes and being oneself. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 80, 472—488.
  61. ↑ Adorno et al., 1950, in Jost 2003
  62. ↑ Rokeach, 1960 Jost 2003
  63. ↑ Wilson 1973c Jost 2003
  64. ↑ Christie 1954 Jost 2003
  65. ↑ (e.g., Gruenfeld, 1995; Sidanius, 1985, 1988; Tetlock, 1983, 1984) in Jost 2003
  66. ↑ Schaller et al., 1995, in Jost2003
  67. ↑ D. M. Webster & Kruglanski, 1994 in Jost2003
  68. ↑ Barker, E. N. (1963). Authoritarianism of the political right, center, and left. Journal of Social Issues, 19, 63—74.
  69. ↑ Altemeyer (1981, 1998) in Jost2003
  70. ↑ Billig (1984) in Jost 2003
  71. ↑ s (Barker, 1963; Christie, 1991; Elms, 1969; Pettigrew, 1958; Rokeach, 1960; Smithers & Lobley, 1978; Stacey & Green, 1971) in Jost 2003
  72. ↑ See Jost 2003, p. 353
  73. ↑ Jost 2003 p. 353
  74. ↑ Shin ML et al., Exaggerated activation of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex during cognitive interference: a monozygotic twin study of posttraumatic stress disorder, 2011
  75. ↑ Bush et al., Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the counting stroop,1999
  76. ↑ Conflict monitoring and anteriorcingulatecortex: an update, 2004
  77. ↑ [ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811909012658Atsou et al., Sadness enhances the experience of pain via neural activation in the anteriorcingulatecortex and amygdala: An fMRI study, 2009]
  78. ↑ Bissieree et al., The Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex Modulates the Efficiency of Amygdala-Dependent Fear Learning, 2008
  79. ↑ Benjamin Y. Hayden1,2, Sarah R. Heilbronner, John M. Pearson, and Michael L. Platt, Surprise Signals in Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Neuronal Encoding of Unsigned Reward Prediction Errors Driving Adjustment in Behavior, The Journal of Neuroscience, 16 March 2011, 31(11): 4178-4187
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